English as a second language (ESL) practitioners are familiar with adult learners' stories of disruption, political trauma, and mental upheaval Adkins, Sample,& Birman, 1999). Until recently, however, little attention has been paid to personal trauma and domestic abuse. Acknowledgement of the prevalence of violence generally, and of that experienced by those in the adult ESL and literacy community specifically, is critical to the development of instructional approaches that make classrooms safer and learning more possible for adult immigrant learners.
This digest describes trauma and abuse in immigrant communities, discusses the effects of trauma on learning, and suggests ways in which practitioners can modify their practice to facilitate learning among victims of trauma and violence.
Violence against women is rooted in an abuser's need for power and control over his victim (Horsman, 2000; Volpp & Marin, 1995). Volpp and Marin delineate specific ways in which abusers exert power and control over immigrant and refugee women. Such control can take the form of emotional, economic, or sexual abuse and can include the batterer's use of coercion, intimidation, and threats. Loss of immigration status and custody of children are threats often used by batterers.
Minimizing violent behavior (e.g., convincing a woman that violence is criminal only if it occurs in public, or that a man is allowed to physically punish her because of male privilege; or blaming her for the violence because she did not obey him) is also common among batterers both within and beyond immigrant communities. Batterers strive to isolate their victims. For immigrant or refugee women, this isolation is exacerbated by language and culture differences that make finding safe options all the more daunting. While an overwhelming majority of violence is inflicted by men against women, violence is also perpetrated by women against men, within same-sex relationships, and intergenerationally.
Horsman (personal communication, June 2000) posits that while every culture accepts violence to some degree, in every culture people are beginning to realize that violence is no longer acceptable. Thinking that cultural groups must be left alone to sort out their own differences only supports the violators. On the other hand, imposing behaviors or beliefs upon communities will not necessarily change attitudes or behaviors. Adult ESL practitioners are urged to learn more about the laws concerning violence against children, adults, and the elderly; about domestic violence assistance options in their communities; and about culture-based approaches of dealing with the issue of violence and learners.
* Listen to
learners and allow their concerns about violence to surface in one
form or another. A class in which a learner-centered approach is
used enables community to develop among the learners. It is
important not to compartmentalize violence or to frame trauma as a
medical issue, but rather to understand its many forms.
* Offer
content and activities that allow learners to share as much or as
little information about themselves as they want, particularly when
they are just beginning to study together. Let learners know that
while they are invited to share information about their lives, they
are not obliged to do so (Isserlis, 1996). Validating learners'
strengths is critical, especially for adults who have received
negative messages about themselves or their learning abilities.
Using learners' native languages for content learning, activities,
and discussion can help build trust and community (Florez, 2000;
Rivera, 1999).
* Allow learners to choose their own level of
participation in classroom activities. Horsman describes learners'
abilities to attend to and participate in classroom activity
as "relative states of presence" (2000, p. 84). She suggests
discussing with learners what it means to be present in the class
and giving permission for them to be less than totally involved in
all class activities. One way to do this is to set up a "quiet
corner" for learners who feel unable to take part in particular
classroom activities (Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture,
2000).
* Find out about community resources. While teachers do not
need to become counselors, they should be aware of appropriate
services. Find out what happens when one calls an emergency
hotline-what information will be asked for, what language assistance
is available, what assurances of confidentiality exist-so that
learners will know exactly what to expect when they call. If
appropriate, create a class activity using the language and
communication skills needed to call a hotline and ask for
assistance. Knowing that many hotlines aid victims of crimes (both
men and women) can lessen some of the anxiety for female victims of
domestic abuse by shifting the focus from them to the broader
community. Allow learners to pursue the topic, if they choose, by
investigating community resources and by reading accounts of the
experiences of other learners. (See, for example, "Not by Myself",
Literacy South, 1999, and "If I Were a Door", Landers, 1994.)
Klaudia Rivera (personal communication, June 2000) notes that staff
at the El Barrio Popular Education Program in New York City created
collaborations with other community agencies dealing with the issue
of domestic violence by providing information about their services
and offering workshops to teach learners to become peer counselors.
She adds, "For many, the abuse began after the students enrolled in
classes. Their partners could not deal with them becoming
independent through learning English. In most cases the spouse had
not been abusive in the past."
* Do not assume that all immigrant
learners have experienced trauma. Neither do teachers necessarily
need to know who among their learners has experienced abuse.
However, educators should understand that certain topics generally
discussed in adult ESL classes (e.g., family and health) can cause
learner discomfort because of past and present abuse (Horsman,
2000).
For English language learners who have faced loss of one sort or another (status, employment, family members, or homeland), being able to view the classroom as a safe and predictable place is key to building community among and safety for learners and practitioners. In one Massachusetts class, students decided to meet together outside of class to form a support group after they realized that they shared histories of abuse. They subsequently produced a videotape and guide to document for others their experiences and the information they gained about domestic violence (Hofer, Haddock, Swekla, & Kocik, 1998).
Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture. (2000). Torture and second language acquisition. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.icomm.ca/ccvt/intro.html
Family Violence Prevention Fund. (1999). Battered immigrant women. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.fvpf.org/immigration/index.html
Florez, M.C. (2000, June/July). Native languages in the beginning adult ESL classroom: To use or not to use. "WATESOL News, 30"(4), 1, 10.
Herman, J. (1992). "Trauma and recovery". New York: Basic Books.
Hofer, J.S., Haddock, M., Swekla, J., & Kocik, J. (1998). "Together we bloom: Women speaking out against domestic violence". Video and guide. Greenfield, MA: Literacy Project/Laubach Literacy Action.
Horsman, J. (2000). "Too scared to learn: Women, violence and education". Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Isserlis,J. (1996). Women at the centre of the curriculum. In K. Nonesuch (Ed.), "Making connections: Literacy and EAL curriculum from a feminist perspective" (pp. 13-14). Toronto, Canada: Canadian Congress for Learning Opportunities for Women.
Landers, C.B. (Ed.). (1994). "If I were a door: Writings of the ESL students at Wake Technical Community College". Snow Camp, NC: Peppercorn Books & Press.
Literacy South. (1999). "Not by myself". (Vols. 1-8). Snow Camp, NC: Peppercorn Books & Press.
Rivera, K. (1999). "Native language literacy and adult ESL instruction". ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education.
Volpp, L., & Marin, L. (1995). "Working with battered immigrant women: A handbook to make services accessible". San Francisco: Family Violence Prevention Fund.
RESOURCES
Elliott, A., & Williams, P. (Eds.). (1995). "Isolating the barriers and strategies for prevention: A kit about violence and women's education for adult educators and adult learners". Toronto, Canada: Canadian Congress for Learning Opportunities for Women. 416-599-2854; http://www.nald.ca/cclow.htm
Isserlis, J. "On the screen". Resources for victims and survivors of abuse. http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Swearer_Center/Literacy_Resources/s creen.html
National Domestic Violence Hotline. A help line for immigrant women. 800-799-7233; http://www.ndvh.org
Peppercorn Books & Press. Publications for teachers of ESOL. 877-574-1634; http://www.peppercornbooks.com
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