Long before the attack on Pearl Harbor, U.S. Army planners, which included Quartermaster Corps personnel, understood that if war came again, it would little resemble World War I. So much had changed between 1918 and 1941. The advent of massive air forces, large-scale armored units, heavy (yet "portable") artillery, and truck-borne infantry troops capable of covering unheard of distances in relatively short periods of time, gave all sides in the coming conflict the ability to quickly expand the battlefield beyond any previous limits.
Instead of a line of trenches running from the Baltic to the Adriatic, the war that finally erupted in the 1930s soon dominated the whole of Europe, much of Africa, Asia and the Pacific as well. The war was neither "static" nor self-limiting. On the contrary, World War II felt as if it were being waged almost everywhere at once. It demanded nothing short of total commitment.
From a Quartermaster perspective, victory depended upon the ability to consistently field food, clothing and equipment superior to the enemy's. Under the stimulus of this new kind of war, scientific research and development (R&D), coupled with industrial know-how, were applied to Quartermaster problems -- with remarkable success. The war years saw an explosion of R&D activities aimed at meeting the soldier's needs on all fronts.
Throughout the history of warfare, great commanders have understood the pressing need, first and foremost, to provide troops with an adequate supply of food. Napoleon is supposed to have said, "an army marches on its stomach." His great adversary, the Duke of Wellington, once boasted that "many can lead troops, I can feed them." Both knew that a lack of suitable provisions would quickly undermine the morale, esprit de corps, discipline and physical condition of an army. There is enormous truth in the old French proverb, "the soup makes the soldier."
Each of America's past wars can be associated with the rations provided. There were the "starving times" at Valley Forge that nearly undid Washington's army. During the Civil War, troops on the march ate "salt horse" and "sow-belly," and a three-inch square wafer called "hardtack" (which had lots of other nicknames, like "teeth-dullers" and "worm castles"). Army cooks in Cuba at the turn of the century will forever be condemned for allegedly having served "embalmed beef."
World War I vets were introduced to chewing gum and cigarettes, and got used to taking their meals with soluble coffee. But they were also left with the memory of far too much canned salmon ("goldfish") and canned corned beef ("corned willie"). There were trained Army cooks in the field at last, but too often they indulged in the practice of combining everything into a nondescript stew (called "slum," after a hobo delicacy) and plopping it rather unceremoniously into the soldier's mess kit.
All of this changed rather dramatically in the mid-1930s. The Quartermaster Corps opened a new Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory at its Chicago Depot in 1936, and thus began the modern era of ration research for the United States armed forces. Out of that environment would come a whole range of specialized rations, scientifically designed and tested, for use in all sorts of military situations and climates.
"D-Bars." The earliest ration to be developed using this scientific approach was the D-Ration. It was made up of three 4-ounce "chocolate" bars wrapped in aluminum foil, then overwrapped and sealed in parchment paper. These were designed solely for emergency use, to replace the old World War I "iron rations." The researcher's intent was to get the highest caloric content possible in the smallest package, and yet retain sufficient palatability. Over 200,000 D-Rations were on hand by the end of 1941. A year later that number swelled to over 10 million.
C-Rations. As early as 1932, reports indicated the need to develop "meals-in-a-can" to replace the World War I "reserve ration." They first experimented with 12-ounce cans of beef stew, Irish stew, beef with noodles, and the like. By 1938, the subsistence lab had come up with a six-can proposal, consisting of three M (meat) units and three B (bread) units. Thus was born the U.S. Army Field Ration C, which some knowledgeable observers described as "one of the best field rations ever."
The C-Ration menu continued to evolve throughout the war. M units ultimately included such favorites as meat and spaghetti, chicken and vegetables, and pork and beans. B units included, among other things, biscuits, compressed and premixed cereal, candy-coated peanuts or raisins, soluble coffee, hard candies, jam, lemon- and orange-juice powder, cocoa mix, and caramels. The accessory packet included nine "good-commercial quality cigarettes," halazone water-purification tablets, book matches, toilet paper, chewing gum and last, but by no means least, a tiny opener for the meat cans.
Ode to a P-38. That tiny, lightweight, collapsible opener developed in 1942 is called a "P-38." How it got that name is still not clear. Some say because it required exactly 38 punctures around a can to open it. Others claimed it performed with the speed of a P-38 fighter plane. Whatever the case, it is clear this little device has to be considered one of the most perfect inventions ever designed for use in combat. Most troops carried it on their dog tags. More than just a can opener, in time the P-38 acquired a thousand and one uses: all-purpose toothpick, fingernail cleaner, screwdriver, bottle opener, box cutter, letter opener, chisel, scraper, stirrer, etc.
For World War II veterans (Korean War and Vietnam vets as well), the P-38 is a souvenir, a bonafide historical artifact worthy of retention. Indeed, one can well imagine countless old soldiers still carrying a P-38 on their key chain a half century after the fact, or preserving it for their offspring along with other cherished items from the war.
K-Rations. Perhaps the best known, and for many soldiers the best-liked field ration in World War II, was the K-Ration. (Note: Contrary to several long-standing myths, there is no special significance attached to the letter "K." It was simply picked to make it phonetically distinguishable from C- and D-Rations.) The lightweight, easy-to-carry ration was designed for the assault phase of a combat operation and was first put to use by Army paratroopers. To the amazement of its developers, it became an overnight success and was soon adopted for all-service use. The Quartermaster Corps purchased its first million K-Rations in May 1942. In the peak year, 1944, they procured more than 105 million.
The K-Ration was packed in three cardboard units -- breakfast, dinner, and supper -- yielding approximately 3,300 calories, and 99 grams of protein. Breakfast centered around a small can of scrambled eggs and ham. Dinner featured some version of canned meat, and supper usually a canned cheese product. The cheese was especially favored, not just because it was thought to taste all that good, but because many believed it aided in alleviating diarrhea. K's also experienced continuous refinement during the war. A greater variety of biscuits were added, along with improved meat products, better packages, and additional accessory items.
K-Rations remained more or less popular to the very end, as long as they were not overused. It does not matter how good a field ration is: if troops experience the same old "box lunches" for weeks on end, complaints are bound to ensue. That is exactly what happened with K-Rations from time to time. (Historical Note: See "Dear B-Bag" article in this edition.)
The problem of providing suitable clothing for a global Army was sometimes more difficult than feeding a global Army. After all, troops in Alaska and Okinawa might eat the same sets of rations, but require very different types of clothing. Tankers had special clothing needs, as did paratroopers. The old "doughboy" uniforms carried over from World War I days would have been out of place entirely in the North African desert or in the jungles of New Guinea.
When World War II began, the U.S. Army was far behind its enemies in developing special combat clothing for the different climates, and for the different conditions under which our forces would be called upon to fight. Soon, though, a number of governmental and private agencies joined ranks with the Quartermaster Corps' Research and Development Branch to begin designing and testing hundreds of new items of military clothing.
For example, they produced no less than 25 types of gloves, from canton flannel for use against mosquitoes in the Pacific to sturdy gauntlets for handling barbed wire in the European Theater of Operations (ETO). For the cold zones, they devised clothing made of fiberglass twill, warmer and lighter than any other cold-weather clothing known at that time. New ponchos and raincoats were developed which were light enough for tropic wear but which afforded maximum protection. Other items included lambskin muffs for cold-weather use by motorcyclists; asbestos gloves for handling hot machine guns; reversible ski suits, snow-white on one side and green on the other, for fooling the enemy in either snowdrifts or pine forests; and electrically heated underwear and flight suits for Army airmen as they ventured to ever higher altitudes.
Headgear and Footgear. In 1941, the Quartermaster Corps initiated a comprehensive review of all Army headgear to determine which hats, caps and helmets ought to be modified or eliminated. An item such as the World War I campaign hat (which resembles the present-day drill sergeant's cap) had a lot of sentimentality attached to it, so many favored its retention. However, the more practical researchers viewed it as next to useless, since it could not be easily worn in motor vehicles, tanks or airplanes. The old doughboy's helmet was also deemed obsolete. It was ultimately replaced by the steel "pot-shaped" helmet with liner, which provided far more protection.
The Corps had even more difficulties developing a good, sturdy service shoe for use in World War II. The Type I service shoe used by National Guard troops on maneuver during the emergency period was the subject of much complaint. Its outer soles wore through in as little as two or three weeks. By the time a Type II shoe with rubber taps and heels was developed, the nation was in the throes of a critical shortage of rubber. Researchers experimented continuously with all sorts of substitute materials. The result was a service shoe that was actually weaker than the product it was designed to replace. It took until 1943 to come up with a viable replacement, the Type III service shoe.
By then, researchers had already concluded that what was really needed was an all new combat boot, to replace both the service shoe and the old-style leggings still in use. By January 1944, the American shoe industry began full-scale production of the new, sturdy combat boot, with tie bottoms and buckled tops, that would serve as the soldier's primary footwear for the remainder of the war.
The new field combat boot was received in all theaters, but it did not meet all needs. General MacArthur's troops in the Pacific still had pressing need for a durable, yet lightweight and quick-drying jungle boot. One model was pressed into production in 1942, but it hardly fit the bill. It had a duck top and rubber sole, was lightweight, porous and easily cleaned and dried. However, it offered so little support that troops routinely complained of "aching arches." The high canvas tops also chafed at the legs, so it was not uncommon for soldiers to fold them over or cut them off. The matter of a new jungle boot was still being examined in the summer of 1945 when the war ended.
Shades of Valley Forge. Even the best combat boot could not always adequately protect foot soldiers during some of the situations they found themselves in during World War II. The enemy in this case was the same one faced by Washington's troops -- Old Man Winter. Troops who were forced to march through cold, muddy slush or to stand in ankle-deep snow in an icy foxhole were subject to widespread outbreaks of frostbite and trench foot. During the 1943 attack on Attu, in the Aleutians, U.S. troops suffered about 1,200 casualties due mainly to trench foot. Likewise about 20 percent of Fifth Army casualties in the winter campaign in Italy were attributed to trench foot.
The next year, in the winter of 1944-45, the incidence of trench foot in the European Theater of Operations reached epidemic proportions. The Chief Quartermaster called for a half million pairs of overshoes in late September, but this was a last-minute request. The overshoes had barely begun arriving before the weather turned bitterly cold, even in October. By mid-October, 320 cases of trench foot were reported in theater. The number continued to rise until it reached a peak of 5,386 cases on November 17th. In all, 44,728 soldiers had to be hospitalized for frostbite and trench foot between October 1944 and April 1945. Enough troops were laid up in this way to round out two good-sized Infantry divisions.
The "Ike Jacket." One of the more popular items of clothing developed by the Quartermaster Corps was the waist-length, wool field jacket known as the "ETO jacket." It was meant to serve a duel purpose as a combat jacket and Class A uniform. To wear as a Class A uniform, troops were convinced that the jacket had to be tight-fitting and well-tailored (like General Eisenhower's) or it did not look right. The Chief Quartermaster railed against this practice and sent QM tailors out to the various depots to show what a proper fit should look like. But to little avail. After V-E Day, the GI dressed in a tight-fitting "Ike jacket" became an ever-present symbol of the occupational force in Europe.
The research and development arm of the Quartermaster Corps in World War II also joined forces with science and industry to improve existing equipment and to provide brand new items, some of them never before envisioned on the battlefield.
Personal Items. When the war began, soldiers were still carrying their clothes and personal items in an old World War I vintage, blue denim "barracks bag." It was long, round and with a drawstring opening at the top -- hard to carry (so most troops just dragged it, which soon wore holes in the sides) and even harder to store properly. By April 1943, it was replaced by a much more durable and easier to carry duffle bag. The latter was 37 inches long and 12 inches square; made of tough, olive-drab-colored duck fabric; and had a double-purpose handle (so it could be carried like a suitcase or slung over the shoulder) and a closure that could be locked.
This was only one of scores of such items that made life a little easier for the World War II soldier. Some items -- such as an improved intrenching tool, for instance -- actually made life a great deal safer, too. Unlike World War I where soldiers spent most of their time at the front in deep, well-fortified and elaborately dug trenches (one author called it a "troglodyte world"), in World War II the emphasis was on individual shelter and the need to construct hasty foxholes. Hence, the intrenching tool became an indispensable piece of equipment, as necessary as a weapon in many settings. One Quartermaster observer in Tunisia in 1943 noted:
"This is one of the few items that the fighting soldier will not discard, but will actually carry right into battle with him. It is probably the most useful utensil that he has in his possession. In every new position he takes, either advancing or retreating, it is absolutely necessary that a foxhole be dug. When foxholes are needed, they are usually need IN A HURRY -- and DEEP!"
The M-1943 Intrenching Tool was a combination shovel, hoe and pick ax, with a wooden handle and folding blade. It could be easily carried, assembled, and required almost no instructions for use. One can only imagine the number of lives saved by it, but even that did not stop QM researchers. An improved 1945 model was already designed and in production when the war ended.
No item it seems was too small or seemingly unimportant that it failed to receive a response from R&D personnel, if it was something they thought was needed in the field. In 1943, as U.S. troops moved into cold climates and deserts simultaneously, word arrived that they were suffering from chapped skin and sunburn. Quartermaster technicians went to work and developed what was described as a "medicated cylindrical stick which contains camphor and other soothing ingredients." In time it was called simply "chapstick."
Functional and Organizational Equipment. Every area of Quartermaster responsibility received attention from the scientific community, resulting in new equipment that made for far greater efficiency in the field. In the petroleum arena for instance, researchers developed and fielded new pumps and dispensers, fixed and collapsible storage facilities, different sized tanker trucks, fuel-testing devices, cleaning equipment, and a wide range of containers for transporting POL products in all situations.
The 55-gallon drum and the 5-gallon "blitz can" (or "jerrican," as it was more commonly known) were as symbolic of World War II as K-Rations, V-mail, and the steel pot helmet. If there ever was an instance of the "for want of a nail" syndrome in modern warfare, it was in the late summer of 1944, when the whole Allied move across France threatened to come to a screeching halt -- for want of enough trucks and jerricans to keep the drive alive. Jerricans filled with gasoline were everywhere, at open dump sites and railheads, stretching alongside the roads, stacked on flatbed trucks, and fastened to the backs of vehicles of every make and variety. Still there a pressing shortage. First and Third Army planners called for no less than 7 million jerricans in September. Production at home never quite matched that need, but theater Quartermasters took up the slack by instituting an ingenious recycling plan which involved, among others, French children.
The Jeep. General Patton once described the 2 1/2-ton truck as "our most valuable weapon." Indeed, there is a strong case to be made for that assessment. But if you ask any World War II veteran what vehicle stands out most in his or her mind, most likely it would be the Army jeep. Officially it was called "the 1/4-ton, 4 x 4, command-reconnaissance car." Unofficially, it had several names such as "blitz-buggy," "bantam," "peep," "puddle-jumper," "jeepie" and "son-of-a-jeep." Eventually the 1/4-ton became affectionately known to one and all as simply the "jeep."
The Jeep had been intended as a low-silhouette command car, with a collapsible top and the ability to mount a machine gun. Quartermaster researchers took the lead in drafting the specifications. It was ultimately designed and built in stages between 1940-41, with the aid of the American Bantam Car Company, Ford, and Willys. It was a genuine group effort, with help from Ordnance and Infantry personnel as well. However, the Quartermaster Corps is entitled to a lion's share of the credit. One historian has written that, "among the contributions of the QMC to the war effort, the development of jeep was probably the most spectacular single accomplishment."
The jeep was originally designed to fill a tactical need and not to haul cargo. That soon changed. Throughout the war, the jeep performed yeoman service as a supply carrier in regions where it usually was the only vehicle available or where larger trucks simply could not maneuver. A Quartermaster officer who relied on the jeep as a sole means of transport along the trails of New Guinea, and in the Buna campaign, stated: "The Jeep and the C-ration are two of the seven wonders of this war." The jeep was immortalized in cartoons by Bill Mauldin, and praised to the hilt by war correspondent Ernie Pyle, who called it "a divine instrument of wartime locomotion." Pyle's eulogy continues:
"Good Lord, I don't think we could continue the war without the jeep. It does everything. It goes everywhere. It's as faithful as a dog, as strong as a mule, and as agile as a goat. It constantly carries twice what it was designed for, and still keeps on going. It doesn't even ride so badly after you get used to it."
SUMMARY. The American soldier went to war in 1941 only marginally better off than his doughboy counterpart a generation before. Under the spur of total conflict, the Quartermaster Corps, with the aid of the scientific and industrial communities, made sure that in time the World War II soldier was in fact the best-fed, best-clothed and best-equipped the world had ever seen. Their success guaranteed that in the postwar decades, research and development would remain a permanent feature of military planning.